Author Capstone Axis

Hormones: Key Concepts 😊 What Are Hormones? Hormones are molecules that act as intercellular messengers. They’re made by endocrine glands and released directly into the bloodstream, which carries them to their target organs :contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0}. Chemical Nature of Hormones Steroids (e.g., estrogens, androgens) Polypeptides (e.g., insulin, endorphins) Amino‐acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine, norepinephrine) :contentReference[oaicite:1]{index=1} Main Functions of […]

Unit 10.5 – Nucleic Acids 🧬 1. The Big Picture Traits travel from parents to children through chromosomes in the nucleus, and those chromosomes contain two star molecules: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). Because both are long chains of nucleotides, scientists also call them polynucleotides.:contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0} 2. Building Blocks Ingredients after complete hydrolysis: a pentose

Vitamins 🌟 Vitamins are tiny organic helpers we need in our food. Even though the amounts are small, missing even one shows up quickly as a clear disease. Our bodies can’t make most of them, but plants can, and the friendly bacteria in our gut lend a hand too. Remember—too many vitamin pills can hurt,

10.3 Enzymes 🔬 1 – Why enzymes matter All the life-giving reactions inside our body (digestion, absorption, energy release) run smoothly at body temperature because of special biocatalysts called enzymes 😊 :contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0} Almost every enzyme is a globular protein, neatly folded so that just the right part (the active site) meets its matching molecule, or substrate. 2 – Key

Proteins – quick and clear notes 🧬 1. Why proteins matter Proteins are the most plentiful biomolecules in living things. You meet them daily in milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, and meat. They build body tissues, keep reactions running, and power growth. The name comes from the Greek proteios, meaning “primary.” :contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0} 2. Building blocks:

Unit 10.1 – Carbohydrates 🍚🍯 1. Big Picture 🌟 Plants build carbohydrates and pack them into food like sugarcane, honey, fruits, and grains. They fuel life and give structure to cells. :contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0} Most carbs fit the handy formula \(\mathrm{C}_x(\mathrm{H_2O})_y\), but chemists define them more precisely as optically active poly-hydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or compounds that release

Diazonium Salts: Your Swiss-Army Knife for Building Aromatic Molecules 🛠️✨ Whenever you see the diazonium group \(\text{–N}_2^+\) on an aryl ring, think of it as a “plug-and-play” handle. You can swap it for many other groups or keep it to make brilliantly coloured dyes. Below are the key tricks you can perform. A. Swapping the

🎯 Quick Overview Benzenediazonium chloride shows up as a colourless crystal that dissolves in water. Keep it cold to stay safe—warm water quickly breaks it down, and dry crystals fall apart even faster. Benzenediazonium fluoroborate, on the other hand, won’t dissolve in water and stays steady at room temperature. 🌡️:contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0} ⚡ Two Big Reaction Paths

9.8 Physical Properties of Benzenediazonium Salts 🔬 Benzenediazonium chloride (ArN2+Cl–) is a colourless crystalline solid 💎 :contentReference[oaicite:5]{index=5} It dissolves easily in water 💧 and stays steady when cold ❄️ :contentReference[oaicite:6]{index=6} Warm it up and it reacts with water; in the dry state it breaks down quickly, pushing out \(N_2\) gas 🌬️ :contentReference[oaicite:7]{index=7} Benzenediazonium fluoroborate (ArN2+BF4–)

Diazonium Salts 🎯 Diazonium salts have the general formula \(\mathrm{R–N_2^{+}X^{-}}\), where R is an aryl group and X− can be Cl−, Br−, HSO4−, BF4−, etc. :contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0} The \(\mathrm{N_2^{+}}\) part is called the diazonium group. :contentReference[oaicite:1]{index=1} Names are built by adding “diazonium” to the parent hydrocarbon name plus the anion name.  • Example 1: \(\mathrm{C_6H_5N_2^{+}Cl^{-}}\) →